Turkey
Introduction Geography People Government Economy Communications Transportation Military Transnational Issues
Introduction	Back To Top
Background: Modern Turkey was founded in 1923 from the Anatolian remnants of the defeated Ottoman Empire by national hero Mustafa KEMAL, who was later honored with the title Ataturk or "Father of the Turks." Under his authoritarian leadership, the country adopted wide-ranging social, legal, and political reforms. After a period of one-party rule, an experiment with multi-party politics led to the 1950 election victory of the opposition Democratic Party and the peaceful transfer of power. Since then, Turkish political parties have multiplied, but democracy has been fractured by periods of instability and intermittent military coups (1960, 1971, 1980), which in each case eventually resulted in a return of political power to civilians. In 1997, the military again helped engineer the ouster - popularly dubbed a "post-modern coup" - of the then Islamic-oriented government. Turkey intervened militarily on Cyprus in 1974 to prevent a Greek takeover of the island and has since acted as patron state to the "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus," which only Turkey recognizes. A separatist insurgency begun in 1984 by the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) - now known as the People's Congress of Kurdistan or Kongra-Gel (KGK) - has dominated the Turkish military's attention and claimed more than 30,000 lives. After the capture of the group's leader in 1999, the insurgents largely withdrew from Turkey mainly to northern Iraq. In 2004, KGK announced an end to its ceasefire and attacks attributed to the KGK increased. Turkey joined the UN in 1945 and in 1952 it became a member of NATO. In 1964, Turkey became an associate member of the European Community. Over the past decade, it has undertaken many reforms to strengthen its democracy and economy; it began accession membership talks with the European Union in 2005.
Geography	Back To Top
Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural): total: 39.78 cu km/yr (15%/11%/74%) per capita: 544 cu m/yr (2001) Total renewable water resources: 234 cu km (2003) Land boundaries: total: 2,648 km border countries: Armenia 268 km, Azerbaijan 9 km, Bulgaria 240 km, Georgia 252 km, Greece 206 km, Iran 499 km, Iraq 352 km, Syria 822 km Environment - international agreements: party to: Air Pollution, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Environmental Modification Climate: temperate; hot, dry summers with mild, wet winters; harsher in interior Map references: Middle East Geographic coordinates: 39 00 N, 35 00 E Natural resources: coal, iron ore, copper, chromium, antimony, mercury, gold, barite, borate, celestite (strontium), emery, feldspar, limestone, magnesite, marble, perlite, pumice, pyrites (sulfur), clay, arable land, hydropower Elevation extremes: lowest point: Mediterranean Sea 0 m highest point: Mount Ararat 5,166 m Terrain: high central plateau (Anatolia); narrow coastal plain; several mountain ranges Geography - note: strategic location controlling the Turkish Straits (Bosporus, Sea of Marmara, Dardanelles) that link Black and Aegean Seas; Mount Ararat, the legendary landing place of Noah's ark, is in the far eastern portion of the country Area: total: 780,580 sq km land: 770,760 sq km water: 9,820 sq km Location: Southeastern Europe and Southwestern Asia (that portion of Turkey west of the Bosporus is geographically part of Europe), bordering the Black Sea, between Bulgaria and Georgia, and bordering the Aegean Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, between Greece and Syria Coastline: 7,200 km Area - comparative: slightly larger than Texas Irrigated land: 52,150 sq km (2003) Environment - current issues: water pollution from dumping of chemicals and detergents; air pollution, particularly in urban areas; deforestation; concern for oil spills from increasing Bosporus ship traffic Maritime claims: territorial sea: 6 nm in the Aegean Sea; 12 nm in Black Sea and in Mediterranean Sea exclusive economic zone: in Black Sea only: to the maritime boundary agreed upon with the former USSR Natural hazards: severe earthquakes, especially in northern Turkey, along an arc extending from the Sea of Marmara to Lake Van Land use: arable land: 29.81% permanent crops: 3.39% other: 66.8% (2005)
People	Back To Top
Total fertility rate: 1.87 children born/woman (2008 est.) Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.03 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.84 male(s)/female total population: 1.02 male(s)/female (2008 est.) HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate: less than 0.1%; note - no country specific models provided (2001 est.) HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS: NA Life expectancy at birth: total population: 73.14 years male: 70.67 years female: 75.73 years (2008 est.) Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 87.4% male: 95.3% female: 79.6% (2004 est.) Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2008 est.) Ethnic groups: Turkish 80%, Kurdish 20% (estimated) Median age: total: 29 years male: 28.8 years female: 29.2 years (2008 est.) Population: 71,892,808 (July 2008 est.) Education expenditures: 4% of GDP (2004) Population growth rate: 1.013% (2008 est.) Languages: Turkish (official), Kurdish, Dimli (or Zaza), Azeri, Kabardian note: there is also a substantial Gagauz population in the European part of Turkey Death rate: 6.02 deaths/1,000 population (2008 est.) Infant mortality rate: total: 36.98 deaths/1,000 live births male: 40.44 deaths/1,000 live births female: 33.34 deaths/1,000 live births (2008 est.) HIV/AIDS - deaths: NA School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education): total: 11 years male: 12 years female: 11 years (2006) Age structure: 0-14 years: 24.4% (male 8,937,515/female 8,608,375) 15-64 years: 68.6% (male 25,030,793/female 24,253,312) 65 years and over: 7% (male 2,307,236/female 2,755,576) (2008 est.) Birth rate: 16.15 births/1,000 population (2008 est.) Religions: Muslim 99.8% (mostly Sunni), other 0.2% (mostly Christians and Jews) Nationality: noun: Turk(s) adjective: Turkish
Government	Back To Top
Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador James F. JEFFREY embassy: 110 Ataturk Boulevard, Kavaklidere, 06100 Ankara mailing address: PSC 93, Box 5000, APO AE 09823 telephone: [90] (312) 455-5555 FAX: [90] (312) 467-0019 consulate(s) general: Istanbul consulate(s): Adana; note - there is a Consular Agent in Izmir National holiday: Republic Day, 29 October (1923) Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal Government type: republican parliamentary democracy Political pressure groups and leaders: Confederation of Public Sector Unions or KESK [Sami EVREN]; Confederation of Revolutionary Workers Unions or DISK [Suleyman CELEBI]; Independent Industrialists' and Businessmen's Association or MUSIAD [Omer Cihad VARDAN]; Moral Rights Workers Union or Hak-Is [Salim USLU]; Turkish Confederation of Employers' Unions or TISK [Tugurl KUDATGOBILIK]; Turkish Confederation of Labor or Turk-Is [Mustafa KUMLU]; Turkish Confederation of Tradesmen and Craftsmen or TESK [Dervis GUNDAY]; Turkish Industrialists' and Businessmen's Association or TUSIAD [Arzuhan Dogan YALCINDAG]; Turkish Union of Chambers of Commerce and Commodity Exchanges or TOBB [M. Rifat HISARCIKLIOGLU] Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Nabi SENSOY chancery: 2525 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 612-6700 FAX: [1] (202) 612-6744 consulate(s) general: Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, New York International organization participation: ADB (nonregional members), Australia Group, BIS, BSEC, CE, CERN (observer), EAPC, EBRD, ECO, EU (applicant), FAO, G-20, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, ITUC, MIGA, NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OIC, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, SECI, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIFIL, UNMIS, UNOCI, UNOMIG, UNRWA, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WEU (associate), WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO, ZC Legislative branch: unicameral Grand National Assembly of Turkey or Turkiye Buyuk Millet Meclisi (550 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) elections: last held on 22 July 2007 (next to be held on November 2012) election results: percent of vote by party - AKP 46.7%, CHP 20.8%, MHP 14.3%, independents 5.2%, and other 13.0%; seats by party - AKP 341, CHP 112, MHP 71, independents 26; note - seats by party as of 17 December 2007 - AKP 340, CHP 87, MHP 70, DTP 20, DSP 13, independents 6, other 12, vacant 2 (DTP entered parliament as independents; DSP entered parliament on CHP's party list); only parties surpassing the 10% threshold are entitled to parliamentary seats Legal system: civil law system derived from various European continental legal systems; note - member of the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), although Turkey claims limited derogations on the ratified European Convention on Human Rights; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction Flag description: red with a vertical white crescent (the closed portion is toward the hoist side) and white five-pointed star centered just outside the crescent opening Independence: 29 October 1923 (successor state to the Ottoman Empire) Country name (Goverment): conventional long form: Republic of Turkey conventional short form: Turkey local long form: Turkiye Cumhuriyeti local short form: Turkiye Political parties and leaders: Anavatan Partisi (Motherland Party) or Anavatan [Salih UZUN]; Democratic Left Party or DSP [Ahmet TURK]; Democratic Society Party or DTP [Nurettin DEMIRTAS]; Felicity Party or SP [Numan KURTULMUS] (sometimes translated as Contentment Party); Justice and Development Party or AKP [Recep Tayyip ERDOGAN]; Nationalist Movement Party or MHP [Devlet BAHCELI] (sometimes translated as Nationalist Action Party); People's Rise Party (Halkin Yukselisi Partisi) or HYP [Yasar Nuri OZTURK]; Republican People's Party or CHP [Deniz BAYKAL]; Social Democratic People's Party or SHP [Murat KARAYALCIN]; True Path Party or DYP [Suleyman SOYLU] (sometimes translated as Correct Way Party); Young Party or GP [Cem Cengiz UZAN] note: the parties listed above are some of the more significant of the 49 parties that Turkey had on 1 December 2004 Capital: name: Ankara geographic coordinates: 39 56 N, 32 52 E time difference: UTC+2 (7 hours ahead of Washington, DC during Standard Time) daylight saving time: +1hr, begins last Sunday in March; ends last Sunday in October Constitution: 7 November 1982; amended 17 May 1987; note - amendment passed by referendum concerning presidential elections on 21 October 2007 Executive branch: chief of state: President Abdullah GUL (since 28 August 2007) head of government: Prime Minister Recep Tayyip ERDOGAN (since 14 March 2003); Deputy Prime Minister Cemil CICEK (since 29 August 2007); Deputy Prime Minister Hayati YAZICI (since 29 August 2007); Deputy Prime Minister Nazim EKREN (since 29 August 2007) cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the president on the nomination of the prime minister elections: president elected directly for a five-year term (eligible for a second term); prime minister appointed by the president from among members of parliament election results: on 28 August 2007 National Assembly elected Abdullah GUL president on the third ballot; National Assembly vote - 339 note: in October 2007 Turkish voters approved a referendum package of constitutional amendments including a provision for direct presidential elections Administrative divisions: 81 provinces (iller, singular - ili); Adana, Adiyaman, Afyonkarahisar, Agri, Aksaray, Amasya, Ankara, Antalya, Ardahan, Artvin, Aydin, Balikesir, Bartin, Batman, Bayburt, Bilecik, Bingol, Bitlis, Bolu, Burdur, Bursa, Canakkale, Cankiri, Corum, Denizli, Diyarbakir, Duzce, Edirne, Elazig, Erzincan, Erzurum, Eskisehir, Gaziantep, Giresun, Gumushane, Hakkari, Hatay, Icel (Mersin), Igdir, Isparta, Istanbul, Izmir (Smyrna), Kahramanmaras, Karabuk, Karaman, Kars, Kastamonu, Kayseri, Kilis, Kirikkale, Kirklareli, Kirsehir, Kocaeli, Konya, Kutahya, Malatya, Manisa, Mardin, Mugla, Mus, Nevsehir, Nigde, Ordu, Osmaniye, Rize, Sakarya, Samsun, Sanliurfa, Siirt, Sinop, Sirnak, Sivas, Tekirdag, Tokat, Trabzon (Trebizond), Tunceli, Usak, Van, Yalova, Yozgat, Zonguldak Judicial branch: Constitutional Court; High Court of Appeals (Yargitay); Council of State (Danistay); Court of Accounts (Sayistay); Military High Court of Appeals; Military High Administrative Court
Economy	Back To Top
Exports - partners: Germany 11.2%, UK 8.1%, Italy 7%, France 5.6%, Russia 4.4%, Spain 4.3% (2007) Electricity - consumption: 141.5 billion kWh (2006 est.) Central bank discount rate: 25% (31 December 2007) Electricity - imports: 863 million kWh (2007 est.) Current account balance: -$51.68 billion (2008 est.) Debt - external: $294.3 billion (31 December 2008 est.) Unemployment rate: 7.9% plus underemployment of 4% (2008 est.) Oil - exports: 114,600 bbl/day (2005) GDP - per capita (PPP): $12,900 (2008 est.) Investment (gross fixed): 21% of GDP (2008 est.) Stock of domestic credit: $358.1 billion (31 December 2007) GDP (purchasing power parity): $930.9 billion (2008 est.) GDP (official exchange rate): $798.9 billion (2008 est.) Distribution of family income - Gini index: 43.6 (2003) Exchange rates: Turkish liras (TRY) per US dollar - 1.3179 (2008 est.), 1.319 (2007), 1.4286 (2006), 1.3436 (2005), 1.4255 (2004) note: on 1 January 2005 the old Turkish lira (TRL) was converted to new Turkish lira (TRY) at a rate of 1,000,000 old to 1 new Turkish lira GDP - real growth rate: 4.5% (2008 est.) Stock of money: $64.43 billion (31 December 2007) Labor force: 23.21 million note: about 1.2 million Turks work abroad (2008 est.) Imports - partners: Russia 13.8%, Germany 10.3%, China 7.8%, Italy 5.9%, US 4.8%, France 4.6% (2007) Inflation rate (consumer prices): 10.2% (2008 est.) GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 8.5% industry: 28.6% services: 62.9% (2008 est.) Oil - imports: 714,100 bbl/day (2005) Exports: $141.8 billion f.o.b. (2008 est.) Natural gas - consumption: 36.6 billion cu m (2007 est.) Currency (code): Turkish lira (TRY); old Turkish lira (TRL) before 1 January 2005 Economy - overview: Turkey's dynamic economy is a complex mix of modern industry and commerce along with a traditional agriculture sector that still accounts for more than 35% of employment. It has a strong and rapidly growing private sector, yet the state still plays a major role in basic industry, banking, transport, and communication. The largest industrial sector is textiles and clothing, which accounts for one-third of industrial employment; it faces stiff competition in international markets with the end of the global quota system. However, other sectors, notably the automotive and electronics industries, are rising in importance within Turkey's export mix. Real GNP growth has exceeded 6% in many years, but this strong expansion has been interrupted by sharp declines in output in 1994, 1999, and 2001. The economy is turning around with the implementation of economic reforms, and 2004 GDP growth reached 9%, followed by roughly 5% annual growth from 2005-07. Inflation fell to 7.7% in 2005 - a 30-year low - but climbed back to 8.5% in 2007. Despite the strong economic gains from 2002-07, which were largely due to renewed investor interest in emerging markets, IMF backing, and tighter fiscal policy, the economy is still burdened by a high current account deficit and high external debt. Further economic and judicial reforms and prospective EU membership are expected to boost foreign direct investment. The stock value of FDI currently stands at about $85 billion. Privatization sales are currently approaching $21 billion. Oil began to flow through the Baku-Tblisi-Ceyhan pipeline in May 2006, marking a major milestone that will bring up to 1 million barrels per day from the Caspian to market. In 2007, Turkish financial markets weathered significant domestic political turmoil, including turbulence sparked by controversy over the selection of former Foreign Minister Abdullah GUL as Turkey's 11th president and the possible closure of the Justice and Development Party (AKP). Economic fundamentals are sound, marked by moderate economic growth and foreign direct investment. Nevertheless, the Turkish economy may be faced with more negative economic indicators in 2009 as a result of the global economic slowdown. In addition, Turkey's high current account deficit leaves the economy vulnerable to destabilizing shifts in investor confidence. Natural gas - exports: 31 million cu m (2007 est.) Imports - commodities: machinery, chemicals, semi-finished goods, fuels, transport equipment Industries: textiles, food processing, autos, electronics, mining (coal, chromite, copper, boron), steel, petroleum, construction, lumber, paper Electricity - exports: 2.576 billion kWh (2007 est.) Population below poverty line: 20% (2002) Stock of quasi money: $254.3 billion (31 December 2007) Electricity - production: 181.6 billion kWh (2007 est.) Imports: $204.8 billion f.o.b. (2008 est.) Oil - proved reserves: 300 million bbl (1 January 2008 est.) Labor force - by occupation: agriculture: 29.5% industry: 24.7% services: 45.8% (2005) Natural gas - proved reserves: 8.495 billion cu m (1 January 2008 est.) Reserves of foreign exchange and gold: $82.82 billion (31 December 2008 est.) Oil - consumption: 676,600 bbl/day (2007 est.) Stock of direct foreign investment - abroad: $13.97 billion (2008 est.) Public debt: 37.1% of GDP (2008 est.) Stock of direct foreign investment - at home: $124.8 billion (2008 est.) Market value of publicly traded shares: $286.6 billion (31 December 2007) Currency code: TRL, YTL Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 2% highest 10%: 34.1% (2003) Exports - commodities: apparel, foodstuffs, textiles, metal manufactures, transport equipment Economic aid - recipient: ODA, $464 million (2005) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 79.3% hydro: 20.4% nuclear: 0% other: 0.3% (2001) Natural gas - imports: 35.83 billion cu m (2007 est.) Natural gas - production: 893 million cu m (2007 est.) Budget: revenues: $164.6 billion expenditures: $176.3 billion (2008 est.) Fiscal year: calendar year Oil - production: 42,800 bbl/day (2007 est.)
Communications	Back To Top
Internet users: 13.15 million (2006) Telephones - main lines in use: 18.413 million (2007) Televisions: 20.9 million (1997) Internet country code: .tr Radio broadcast stations: AM 16, FM 107, shortwave 6 (2001) Radios: 11.3 million (1997) Telephones - mobile cellular: 61.976 million (2007) Television broadcast stations: 635 (plus 2,934 repeaters) (1995) Telephone system: general assessment: undergoing rapid modernization and expansion especially with cellular telephones domestic: additional digital exchanges are permitting a rapid increase in subscribers; the construction of a network of technologically advanced intercity trunk lines, using both fiber-optic cable and digital microwave radio relay, is facilitating communication between urban centers; remote areas are reached by a domestic satellite system; the number of subscribers to mobile-cellular telephone service is growing rapidly international: country code - 90; international service is provided by the SEA-ME-WE-3 submarine cable and by submarine fiber-optic cables in the Mediterranean and Black Seas that link Turkey with Italy, Greece, Israel, Bulgaria, Romania, and Russia; satellite earth stations - 12 Intelsat; mobile satellite terminals - 328 in the Inmarsat and Eutelsat systems (2002) Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 50 (2001) Internet hosts: 2.667 million (2008)
Transportation	Back To Top
Waterways: 1,200 km (2008) Pipelines: gas 7,511 km; oil 3,636 km (2007) Railways: total: 8,697 km standard gauge: 8,697 km 1.435-m gauge (1,920 km electrified) (2006) Ports and terminals: Aliaga, Diliskelesi, Izmir, Kocaeli (Izmit), Mercin Limani, Nemrut Limani Heliports: 18 (2007) Merchant marine: total: 612 by type: bulk carrier 101, cargo 281, chemical tanker 70, combination ore/oil 1, container 35, liquefied gas 7, passenger 4, passenger/cargo 51, petroleum tanker 31, refrigerated cargo 1, roll on/roll off 28, specialized tanker 2 foreign-owned: 8 (Cyprus 2, Germany 1, Greece 1, Italy 3, UAE 1) registered in other countries: 595 (Albania 1, Antigua and Barbuda 6, Bahamas 8, Belize 15, Cambodia 26, Comoros 8, Dominica 5, Georgia 14, Greece 1, Isle of Man 2, Italy 1, Kiribati 1, Liberia 7, Malta 176, Marshall Islands 50, Moldova 3, Netherlands 1, Netherlands Antilles 10, Panama 94, Russia 80, Saint Kitts and Nevis 35, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 20, Sierra Leone 15, Slovakia 10, Tuvalu 2, UK 2, unknown 2) (2008) Airports - with paved runways: total: 90 over 3,047 m: 15 2,438 to 3,047 m: 33 1,524 to 2,437 m: 19 914 to 1,523 m: 19 under 914 m: 4 (2007) Roadways: total: 426,951 km (includes 1,987 km of expressways) (2006) Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 27 over 3,047 m: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 914 to 1,523 m: 7 under 914 m: 17 (2007) Airports: 117 (2007)
Military	Back To Top
Military service age and obligation: 20 years of age (2004) Manpower available for military service: males age 16-49: 20,213,205 females age 16-49: 19,432,688 (2008 est.) Military - note: a "National Security Policy Document" adopted in October 2005 increases the Turkish Armed Forces (TSK) role in internal security, augmenting the General Directorate of Security and Gendarmerie General Command (Jandarma); the TSK leadership continues to play a key role in politics and considers itself guardian of Turkey's secular state; in April 2007, it warned the ruling party about any pro-Islamic appointments; despite on-going negotiations on EU accession since October 2005, progress has been limited in establishing required civilian supremacy over the military; primary domestic threats are listed as fundamentalism (with the definition in some dispute with the civilian government), separatism (the Kurdish problem), and the extreme left wing; Ankara strongly opposed establishment of an autonomous Kurdish region; an overhaul of the Turkish Land Forces Command (TLFC) taking place under the "Force 2014" program is to produce 20-30% smaller, more highly trained forces characterized by greater mobility and firepower and capable of joint and combined operations; the TLFC has taken on increasing international peacekeeping responsibilities, and took charge of a NATO International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) command in Afghanistan in April 2007; the Turkish Navy is a regional naval power that wants to develop the capability to project power beyond Turkey's coastal waters; the Navy is heavily involved in NATO, multinational, and UN operations; its roles include control of territorial waters and security for sea lines of communications; the Turkish Air Force adopted an "Aerospace and Missile Defense Concept" in 2002 and has initiated project work on an integrated missile defense system; Air Force priorities include attaining a modern deployable, survivable, and sustainable force structure, and establishing a sustainable command and control system (2008) Manpower fit for military service: males age 16-49: 17,011,635 females age 16-49: 16,433,364 (2008 est.) Military branches: Turkish Armed Forces (TSK): Turkish Land Forces (Turk Kara Kuvvetleri, TKK), Turkish Naval Forces (Turk Deniz Kuvvetleri, TDK; includes naval air and naval infantry), Turkish Air Force (Turk Hava Kuvvetleri, THK) (2008) Manpower reaching militarily significant age annually: male: 660,452 female: 638,527 (2008 est.) Military expenditures: 5.3% of GDP (2005 est.)
Transnational Issues	Back To Top
Disputes - international: complex maritime, air, and territorial disputes with Greece in the Aegean Sea; status of north Cyprus question remains; Syria and Iraq protest Turkish hydrological projects to control upper Euphrates waters; Turkey has expressed concern over the status of Kurds in Iraq; border with Armenia remains closed over Nagorno-Karabakh Refugees and internally displaced persons: IDPs: 1-1.2 million (fighting 1984-99 between Kurdish PKK and Turkish military; most IDPs in southeastern provinces) (2007) Illicit drugs: key transit route for Southwest Asian heroin to Western Europe and, to a lesser extent, the US - via air, land, and sea routes; major Turkish and other international trafficking organizations operate out of Istanbul; laboratories to convert imported morphine base into heroin exist in remote regions of Turkey and near Istanbul; government maintains strict controls over areas of legal opium poppy cultivation and over output of poppy straw concentrate; lax enforcement of money-laundering controls

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